By prompting and reminding students instructors can activate relevant prior knowledge so students can draw on it more effectively (Bransford & Johnson 1972; Dooling & Lachman 1971) but must be wary of prior knowledge triggering an inappropriate association that distorts new knowledge. Examples from the How Learning Works include students learning the concept of negative reinforcement (p. 37) and applying the writing conventions of narrative writing to analytical papers (Beaufort 2007). By reducing distractions and time pressures students are more likely to think rationally and less likely to apply misconceptions (Finucane et al. 2000; Kahnemann & Frederick 2002).
Fiction and poetry can be used to stimulate dualistic students. Poetry especially provides possibilities for ambiguity varied interpretations and multiple perspectives leading students toward multiplicity and relativism.
More examples include connecting cooking with scientific processes like chemical synthesis. To help students avoid the pitfall of applying faulty assumptions to new knowledge instructors can provide them with heuristics (e.g. When you see 'negative' in the context of negative reinforcement think of subtraction.). They can also explicitly define discipline-specific terms and show students the boundary where analogies break down while asking students to make and test predictions and justify their reasoning.
Participating in small group work also makes students engage with multiple perspectives and active learning where students contribute to 80-90% of classroom discussion reduces the instructor's role as class authoritarian and increases students' reliance on each other to construct knowledge with the use of evidence and reasoning.
To involve students more actively in classroom discussion Dillon (1990 179-81) proposes nine alternatives to questioning:
- Make a declarative or factual statement: Huck is in a dilemma here; he must choose between turning Jim in and eternal damnation. (Expects elaboration)
- Make a reflective statement: So Dana you think Hamlet still doesn't have enough evidence at this point. (Shows attention; invites further response)
- Describe the student's state of mind: Jerry you seem to feel strongly that Miss Emily was simply 'crazy' as you put it. (Probes for reflective analysis)
- Describe your own state of mind I'm confused; five minutes ago you said exactly the opposite. (Expresses feeling; invites clarification resolution)
- Invite a student to elaborate on a statement: Sandy convince me that what you said about Atticus is true. (Probes for further evidence)
- Encourage the student to ask a question: You might ask me why I think Miss Emily's behavior was perfectly predictable. (Suggests overlooking of important idea)
- Encourage students to ask questions of one another: It is possible as Harry implies that Hamlet loves his mother too much in the wrong way. (Provokes controversy)
- Describe your own status: I think The Road Not Taken is definitely not about taking a difficult or unusual path through life. There's no evidence for that. (May provoke controversy; encourages further probing)
- Maintain a deliberate silence. (This encourages reflection. We can't require them to think and not allow them time to do it.)
Deeply held convictions such as religious beliefs may be irrefutable in students' minds. However teachers can foster a classroom climate conducive to student development and learning while confronting uncertainty by doing the following:
- Resist a Single Right Answer
- Incorporate Evidence into Performance and Grading Criteria
- Examine Your Assumptions About Students
- Be Mindful of Low-Ability Cues
- Do Not Ask Individuals to Speak for an Entire Group
- Reduce Anonymity
- Model Inclusive Language Behavior and Attitudes
- Use Multiple and Diverse Examples
- Establish and Reinforce Ground Rules for Interaction
- Make Sure Course Content Does Not Marginalize Students
- Use the Syllabus and First Day of Class to Establish the Course Climate
- Set Up Processes to Get Feedback on the Climate
- Anticipate and Prepare for Potentially Sensitive Issues
- Address Tensions Early
In addressing tensions and fostering a productive classroom environment teachers can facilitate active listening pose appropriate questions listen empathetically maintain flow respectfully correct misconceptions and manage time effectively.
Teachers can lastly employ metacognition - thinking about how we teach - as we refine and transfer what we learn about teaching in our courses as they as our students our fields and we change.